A materialist take on minoritization, emancipation, and language revitalization: Occitan sociolinguistics since the 1970s

This paper introduces and discusses Occitan sociolinguistics as it evolved from the 1970s onward a theory of language contact conflict. It was developed in conjunction with its Catalan counterpart reaction to Joshua Fishman's allocational model diglossia, came response conditions swift social linguistic change Southern France after Second World War. model, proposed mainly at first by Robèrt Lafont Montpelhièr, is strongly materialist that focuses on material production replaces movement among other struggles. explores roots contemporary links birth sociolinguistics. then analyzes key concepts such diglossic ideology essential understand processes minoritization, alienation, domination. Finally, looks how this approach conceptualizes revitalization not issue but one suggests provides an alternative models loss revival rooted cultural identity politics. Aquest article presenta e discutís la sociolingüistica occitana tala coma fuguèt concebuda despuei leis annadas 1970 teoria dau lingüistic Se desvolopèt cotria amb catalana una reaccion au modèl alocacional de Fishman venguèt respònsa occitanista ai condicions socialas dei cambiaments sociaus lingüistics rapids en Occitània après fin seconda guerra mondiala. Aqueu modèl, prepausat mai que l'origina per Montpelhier, prefondament çò se concentra sus lei materialas produccions lengatgieras plaça lo moviment entre autrei mobilizacions socialas. ramenta primièr rasigas occitan actuau sei liames naissença occitana. Passa puei l'analisi concèpts claus aqueu d'ideologia diglossica part centrala comprension procès minorizacion, d'alienacion lingüistica dominacion sociala. Acaba question revitalizacion lenga non problèma sociau, suggesís porgís d'alternativas modèls analitics explicatius basats cultura l'identitat. both precedes work lack explicit conceptualization conflict his analysis diglossia. Montpelhièr (in south France) 1960s close conversation School Valencia Catalonia (see Pujolar, 2021), historical situation—the rapid decline South First War—and political substitution. thus predates works death endangerment presents radically different take substitution, sociology. sociolinguistic analyses initiated Robert (1923–2009) 1950s onward, Felip Gardy (1948–), Henri Boyer (1946–), also Brigitte Schlieben-Lange (1943–2002) Germany, or Georg Kremnitz (1945–) Austria. sociolinguistics, like Lluís Aracil Rafael Ninyoles analyzed Joan Pujolar (2021) journal, little known outside Occitan, French, spheres readership. wider “peripheral sociolinguistics”—a term coined conference held Frankfurt 1979 (Lafont, 1997, p. 33), perhaps (Pujolar, 2021)—or “conflict sociolinguistics” (Kremnitz, 1979) sought problematize issues society margins European contribute decolonization societies were understood alienated form colonial domination (Larzac, 1980). (or Lenga d’òc) described linguists Romance traditionally spoken what now southern (including Provence, Languedoc, Gascony). written languages Medieval Europe used for administrative usage literature (that troubadours particular). gradually marginalized public life Kingdom politically consolidated sixteenth century around unique center Paris. Consequently, various assemblages involving Latin formed levels (local, provincial, regional, etc.) subsequent centuries literature, arts, politics, everyday practices. remained, nevertheless, vast majority people well into twentieth century. Unlike society, however, Occitania subjected Francoist rule (1936–1975). Thus while disempowered economic perspective War 1998), did suffer direct physical oppression. What stake mostly symbolic violence Parisian 2004), reproducing forms absolutism (Lagarde, 2016). The did, gain considerable traction 1970s, following convergence several struggles sectors international context worldwide civil rights movements. In paper, I wish outline development main contributions before showing constitutes reversing shift compared Fishman's. train thought will be Lafont, polymath prolific novelist, sociologist, historian, linguist sociolinguist (Puig i Moreno, 2011). As sociolinguist, he founded resolve praxematics, praxis (Barbéris et al., 2003). meant develop linguistics parole rather than langue1—a practice approaches language. While each current still productive today, research strands can connected ways 1978), focus only policy aspects work. section, review early signs France. show central element failure original movement, Felibrige (created 1854) commitment reality time. Conversely, (relative) success second which discuss born, lies deep engagement resulted post-Second decisions. There renewed interest dialects 1780s (Merle, 2010). was, 1850s mobilized classical, post-1848 Romantic-type, literary (the Felibrige) under aegis poet Frederic2 Mistral. organization endures 170 years later. For best last century, nonetheless, has been organization, cultivating celebrating Provence's traditions. Mistral obtain Nobel Prize Literature 1904, achieved terms failed secure any rights—aside children Provence (but rest Occitania) ceasing beaten speaking school. An born Louis Napoleon Bonaparte's coup d’état 1852, hesitated between Empire Republic, conservatism progressivism throughout nineteenth (Martel, 1986). year 1907 could have been, important turning point junction movement. That year, wine producers Languedoc staged some largest protests since revolution 1790s: “As prices remained depressed, protesters filled streets region's cities, culminating gathering estimated 600,000 Montpellier 9 June 1907” (Smith & Hawkey, 2015, 308). Summoned protesters, refused back protests, squandering chance advocates ever had large, national platform dynamic their favor 1991, 54). similar foundational moment struggle enabled emerge combined auspices (again), sociology, consequence complex evolution itself: gravity moved Catholic south-east Avinhon Arle more left-leaning beginning acquired radical left-wing tone (Abrate, 2001). A fresh start standardization implemented starting 1905 philologists Prospèr Estieu (1860–1939) Antonin Perbòsc (1861–1944). They joined later Loís Alibèrt (1884–1959), together they new spelling system based scripta parts territory Middle Ages 2012). which, war guidance account transformations Occitan-speaking areas industrialization agriculture creation Common Market 1950s. might seem arcane, recount briefly biographical elements exile wartime experiences, would shape 1923 Nimes, 1936 experienced called còntranaissènça (counterbirth) when parents small town Jura, north-east 1979). recounted autobiography, made him aware difference, grandparents spoke themselves. Upon returning live 1938, became local Felibres. Felibrige, wrote, too imbued mythical world largely disappeared compromised far right Nazi occupation (it counted members Charles Maurras, famous far-right writer, organizer monarchist group Action Française collaborationist). soon left abandoned nationalism 1979, 23). text initially published 1989 reflecting 30 practices, referred study 1952 recently created Institut d'Estudis Occitans (IEO, Institute Studies) 1952). argued need basic survey roughly evaluate many speakers explore discourse issues. At time, situations dissimilar across regions: being passed children, Dauphiné example) systematic socialization stopped (Bert 2009). proposal aimed causes (ideological, social, historical) get idea actual IEO board rejected Lafont's proposal, delaying, claimed, 20 1989). already focused termed “conflit des langages” (conflict languages). unlike Weinreich's also, onset “the scientific outcome activist stance,”3 stance out implication field. another event developed, changes happened 1907, activists eschew marked Coal Steel Community established 1951, consecrated industrial towards north east 1998). On December 19, 1961, long 66-day strike workers coalfield La Sala (Decazeville French), region Roergue Avairon department). discovery oil fields East, Africa America rendered much competitive coal, announced decrease use coal (Contreras Romero, 2006). mine converted chemical plant (Roqueta 1975). When natural gas brought Sala, reorganization site sent positions home. negotiate French government led demonstrations strike, demanded plans mines reconsidered, kept open. employees asked all returned site, retirement packages aligned prereorganization arrangements. miners’ politicized ways, nationally regionally Most importantly regional dimension, politicians equated defending against authorities, solutions communist party opened way formulation response. poem novelist Bodon, 1980, captures moment: events are told detail here.4 decisive forging intellectual country impulse newly future Union). crucial gave journalist Serge Mallet opportunity coin concept “colonized within” (colonisés l'intérieur) (France Observateur, January 11, 1962, Roqueta 1975), theorized “Interior colonialism” Lagarde, 2012 full analysis). our story here conducted least workers—they immigrants Spain, Italy, Poland, become socialized (by multilingual) community through photo shows poster saying, using orthographic conventions: “Bibo Soulidaritat. Nous daïssaren pas torssé” (Long solidarity, we shall defeated) (Figure 1). Occitans, waking call. decade debates about necessity move away productions produce sociopolitical grounded struggle. Comité d’étude d'action (COEA, Committee Study Action) Narbona 1962 Sala. club, foster dialogue parties; club sociological, (Cavaillé, 2017), sense shared numerous characteristics colonies overseas: peripheralized tract land, primarily resources workforce. While, course, racial factor world, stereotyping nevertheless hetero-identification Southerners Northerners Boyer, 2019). Lo sentiment viu dins un ensems d'oposicions dialecticas, las fan nàisser relacions d'una societat genèsi : aital l'occitan del sègle XII destria latin literari laïca localizada oposicion glèisa ecumenica […]. 1965 paginated online version) lives series dialectical oppositions, relations nascent society: 12th c. separated secular localized opposed religious ecumenical […].5 critique Marxian centuries. He considered movements emerged within perpetuated alienation. viewed particular, disconnected consequently suffered reproduced popular not, culturalist, ethnicist, even nationalist, (Rouquette 1982). What, argued, those unfamiliar vs. dichotomy stood class dialectic 1965). perspective, existence thwarted colonization approach, bourgeoisie, excluded certain extent mechanisms power until took control (French) state apparatus investing acquiring servants. cases, repression decided who turned people, very name detour via constitution helps explain fundamental difference disciplinary developments: mainly, primary stems emancipate (a) free territory. put it, “la mòr es. Mòr país” itself does die, [it no existence]. dies country/land) 47). materialized anti-military Causse Larzac 1971. After 1974, anti-capitalist subsumed Volèm viure al país (We want homeland) slogan others. COEA CGT (Confédération Générale du Travail; General Confederation Labour) trade union. expanded (Volèm país; We home) Viure, trabalhar decidir (Living, working, deciding home). gaining support then-strong late (Alliès, moot 1980s reasons, especially steps regionalization 1981 1989), saw election François Mitterrand socialist President process caused marginalization entire 1983, dismantling steel large industries policies 1991), adoption governments 1983 neoliberal agenda. next look practical implications outlook (1989) accepted proposition conduct serious use. Yet, 1969 American Fishmanian form) reached researchers (Boyer, pp. 16–17), mediated sociolinguists. indeed started critical 1966. recalls, “Lafont participated regularly 1968 1972 Universitat Catalana d'Estiu [Catalan Summer University], interdisciplinary forum intellectuals Fuster Aracil) situated Catalonia” 2021, 135). Together, diglossia bone contention Catalan/Occitan concerned status consequences entailed. defined functional distribution community, whereby coexist spheres. Typically, minoritized languages, entail home sphere. importantly, implied possibility stability over sociolinguists, hand, insisted situation two coexisted societal level unstable temporary. stressed functions Ferguson conceals really existing society” 1984b, 7). Contact, thus, cannot exist without conflict, there outcomes conflict: normalization reestablishment dominated usages domains life, gradual demise replacement. Connections, debates, exchanges constant Catalan/Valencian sociolinguists 1980s. lectured Autonoma Barcelona 1973 1980 becoming professor University Occitania. ideally placed propose synthesis currents book entitled Langues conflit: études sociolinguistiques (1990). Compared seemingly greater individual subject.6 But because differences ground, differ few theoretical points. Indeed, bourgeoisie aspect anti-Francoist resistance, “Occitan faced shreds disaster collapse intergenerational transmission, uses 1945, [could not] pretend unaware phenomenon” closer Occitania; elites switched Spanish during course so promoting bilingualism ideologically motivated type ultimately aiming monolingualism dominant (Aracil, state, (and undergone (1977) patoisització, “becoming patois.” discrimination likely widespread (if all) societies, defining characteristic capital provinces seventeenth patois index speech “had grammar, express everything, bastardized languages” 1977, 132)—in case Italian Spanish. studies fabric territorial Becoming entailed renouncing conventions Lodge, 1993, 123 cartographic representation script displacement) acts union annexation territories fifteenth step, consisted depreciation. involved suppression autonomous provincial subordinate classes: “The sanctions extending upon body […] linguistic-cultural unity dominance formal culture” 133). situation, according three stages/characteristics: intercommunication microlocal; classes; population. linguists, said, reduced geolinguistic/dialectological characteristic), erasing dimensions patois. “patois” uncontrolled manner describe microlocal pretence supposedly neutral description. guided traditional, presociolinguistic, dialectological work, ideology. Cependant s'il y réellement conflit, ce à chaque instant parole, le conflit n'est jamais, ou pratiquement jamais exprimé tant tel. Il est toujours dévié, disséminé, évacué. (Gardy 1981, 74) However, if every utterance, never, practically expressed such. always diverted, disseminated, evacuated. aim clear: uncover mechanisms, reverse them defuse root. More generally, set task ideologies 132–33) promote wherever possible. agenda Lengas, journal 1977.8 [l]e sociolinguiste trouve dans nécessité, ne veut adhérer plus moins implicitement schéma d’évolution linguistique qu'il analyse, c'est-à-dire donner l'intégration culturelle armes moyens renfort, d'affirmer son dénonciatrice processus. Mais sa démarche demeure scientifique, objectivante doublement: elle construit déconstruit l'objectivité l'objet, objective même temps comme apparaît donc fois impliqué désimpliqué: aux yeux dominance, militant titre suspecté, militance désengagé suspect tiédeur trahison. 94–95) find themselves affirm denunciatory involvement process, do adhere less implicitly pattern analysing – say, give integration arms means reinforcement. remains scientific, say doubly objectifying: constructs deconstructs objectivity object, objectifies same [Occitan sociolinguists] therefore appear dis-involved: eyes suspiciously capacity; militancy disengaged lukewarmness betrayal. her recent activism academics revitalization, Haley De Korne strategies scholars deploy. She cites “creating” (resources, events), “representing” (practices, identities), “connecting” (people, resources) (De Korne, 83). To list, scholarship add “uncovering” “exposing”). Diglossia, masks conflicts. Part scholarly reveal masked discourses complementarity registers. inherited raw dialectologist, almost completely gone). Reconstituted 1854. W